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PNNL study outlines requirements for grid storage, reviews four electrochemical energy storage systems: vanadium redox flow, Na-beta, Li-ion and lead-carbon

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Classification of potential electrical storage for stationary applications. To be successful, systems will need to evolve—in some cases, considerably—to compete financially with the cost of natural gas production. Approximation of capital cost per cycle of different ESS technologies. Credit: ACS, Yang et al.

Li-ion 231